Which part of the body is involved?

Breast cancer usually begins in the breast tissue, particularly in the milk-producing glands (lobules) or the milk-carrying ducts. The breast also contains fatty tissue, connective tissue, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels, which may be involved as the disease progresses.
Anatomical illustration labeling lobules, ducts, lymph nodes.

Breast cancer may be seen in:

• Women of all adult ages, with risk increasing with age
• Younger women, particularly with certain genetic or hormonal risk factors
• People with or without a family history of breast cancer

Having no known risk factors does not exclude the possibility of developing breast cancer.

Breast cancer develops when normal breast cells undergo changes affecting how they grow, divide, and die. Altered cells can multiply uncontrollably and may accumulate to form a mass. Over time, these cells may spread into nearby tissue or, in some cases, travel via lymphatic channels or blood vessels to other parts of the body.

Factors that may increase the risk of breast cancer include:

• Increasing age
• Family history of breast or related cancers
• Inherited genetic mutations (such as BRCA1 or BRCA2)
• Hormonal factors, including early menstruation, late menopause, or prolonged exposure to estrogen
• Alcohol consumption
• Obesity or low physical activity
• Previous chest radiation
• Certain benign breast conditions

Having one or more risk factors does not mean cancer will develop.

A simple way to stay aware of your body

Breast self-examination is a gentle, at-home practice that helps you become familiar with how your breasts normally look and feel. This awareness makes it easier to notice changes early and seek timely medical advice when needed.

A self-exam takes only a few minutes and involves looking at your breasts and feeling them with your fingers. Breast tissue extends beyond the breast mound — up to the armpits, collarbone, and upper abdomen — so the exam includes these areas as well.

A breast self-exam does not replace medical screening or doctor visits. It is a tool for awareness, not diagnosis.

1. Visual Examination (Looking)

Stand in front of a mirror with your shirt and bra removed.

• Arms relaxed by your sides — Look for changes in breast shape, size, or symmetry. Notice any swelling, skin dimpling, or changes in nipple position.
• Arms raised overhead — Raise both arms and look again for the same changes.
• Hands on hips, chest muscles tightened — Press your hands firmly on your hips and gently tighten your chest muscles. Observe the skin and nipples once more.

Look for anything that appears new, uneven, or unusual for you.

2. Physical Examination (Feeling)
You can examine your breasts standing (often easier in the shower) or lying down. Both methods are effective.

Standing Breast Self-Exam

• Remove your shirt and bra.
• Use your right hand to examine your left breast, and vice versa.
• Using the pads of your three middle fingers, press gently on the breast tissue.
• Apply light pressure, then medium, then firm, moving slowly.
• Use a circular pattern to cover the entire breast.
• Include the area near the armpit, under the areola, and gently squeeze the nipple to check for discharge.
• Repeat on the other side.

Lying-Down Breast Self-Exam
This position spreads breast tissue evenly and may make changes easier to feel.

• Lie down with a pillow under one shoulder.
• Place the arm of that side behind your head.
• Using the opposite hand, gently examine the breast with light, medium, and firm pressure.
• Cover all areas, including the armpit and around the nipple.
• Switch sides and repeat.

Many breasts naturally feel lumpy or uneven, especially at certain times of the menstrual cycle. What matters most is knowing what is normal for you.

Contact a healthcare provider if you notice:

• A new lump or thickened area
• Changes in skin texture, redness, or swelling
• Nipple discharge (especially if bloody or spontaneous)
• A nipple turning inward or changing direction
• Persistent pain in one area

A doctor may recommend further evaluation, such as an ultrasound or mammogram, if needed.

• Breast self-exams do not replace clinical exams or imaging.
• Not all lumps are cancerous.
• Feeling anxious is common – seeking clarity early can ease worry.
• Regular screening and professional evaluation remain essential.

While a self-exam is not diagnostic, being aware of possible warning signs can help you act early:

• New or inverted nipple
• Skin dimpling or puckering (orange-peel appearance)
• Redness, rash, or swelling
• Unusual nipple discharge
• A persistent lump or change that does not settle

A simple way to remember how to perform a thorough self-exam:

• Position — Check in front of a mirror and lying down
• Perimeter — Include the area extending to the armpits
• Palpation — Use gentle circular finger movements
• Pressure — Light, medium, and firm
• Pattern — Follow a consistent method to cover all areas
• Practice — Do it regularly
• Planning — Know what to do if something feels unusual

Awareness is not about fear — it’s about familiarity.
Knowing your body helps you care for it better.

Cervical cancer usually begins in the cells lining the cervix, most commonly in the transformation zone, where the outer and inner cervix meet. This area is more vulnerable to damage, especially from persistent high-risk HPV infection.

• Caused mainly by persistent high-risk HPV infection
• Most common in people aged 30–50
• Higher risk if not vaccinated against HPV
• Increased risk without regular cervical screening
• Greater risk for those with weakened immune systems
• More common in underserved or low-resource settings. Not linked to personal hygiene, morality, or a single life choice

Having one or more risk factors does not mean a person will definitely develop cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer usually develops slowly over many years. Persistent high-risk HPV infection can interfere with normal cell growth regulation, leading to abnormal cell changes. These abnormal cells may form precancerous lesions, which can progress to cancer if not detected and treated.

Factors that may increase risk include:

• HPV infection (main cause)
• Smoking
• Early sexual activity or multiple sexual partners
• Compromised immune system
• Long-term use of oral contraceptives
• Multiple pregnancies

Which part of the body is involved?

Ovarian cancer involves the ovaries, two small organs located on either side of the uterus in the lower abdomen. In some cases, the cancer may begin in nearby tissues, such as the surface lining of the ovary or the cells of the fallopian tubes, but it is still categorized as ovarian cancer.

The ovaries play a key role in reproduction and hormone regulation.

• Ovarian cancer risk increases with age and is highest in postmenopausal women, most commonly diagnosed between 50–70 years.
• Inherited gene mutations, such as BRCA1, BRCA2, or Lynch syndrome
• Starting menstrual cycle before 12 years old
• Starting menopause after 52 years old
• Women who have never been pregnant or had fewer full-term pregnancies
• Endometriosis (abnormal growth of tissue that lines the inside of the uterus)
• Radiation exposure to the pelvis

Ovarian cancer is often called a “silent” cancer because early symptoms can be subtle, vague, or easily mistaken for common digestive or hormonal issues.

How does this cancer usually develop?

Ovarian cancer usually develops when cells in or around the ovary undergo changes that cause them to grow abnormally. These cells may divide more rapidly than normal and may not stop growing when they should.

Over time, these abnormal cells can form a tumor. Growth patterns and behavior can differ depending on the type of ovarian cancer. The exact cause of these cellular changes is often unknown.

Factors that may increase risk

Several factors may increase the risk of ovarian cancer, though having one or more does not mean a person will develop the disease.

Possible risk factors include:

• Increasing age
• Family history of ovarian or related cancers
• Inherited genetic changes such as BRCA1 or BRCA2
• Endometriosis
• Certain reproductive or hormonal factors
• Obesity

Risk is influenced by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors.

Colon cancer begins in the large intestine (colon), located in the abdomen. The colon is approximately 1.5 metres long and lies between the small intestine and the rectum.

The main parts of the colon include:

• Caecum (beginning of the colon)
• Ascending colon (right side of the abdomen)
• Transverse colon (upper abdomen)
• Descending colon (left side)
• Sigmoid colon (lower, S-shaped section)
• Rectum (final part before stool exits the body)

Colon cancer may be seen in:

• Adults over the age of 45
• Both men and women
• People with a family history of colorectal cancer
• Increasingly, younger adults in recent years

Cases are rising globally and in India, making awareness important across age groups.

Colon cancer usually develops when normal cells in the lining of the colon undergo abnormal changes and begin to grow uncontrollably. These changes may start as polyps, which are small growths that can gradually become cancerous over time if not detected and removed.

Several factors may increase the risk of developing colon cancer:

• Increasing age
• Family history or inherited genetic conditions
• A diet high in processed or red meat and low in fibre
• Obesity and physical inactivity
• Smoking and heavy alcohol use
• Long-standing inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease)

Which part of the body is involved?

The pancreas is a small gland located behind the stomach and close to the liver and intestines. It performs two key functions:

• Releases digestive enzymes to help break down food
• Produces hormones such as insulin to regulate blood sugar

Most pancreatic cancers begin in the ducts that carry digestive enzymes.
Structure of the Pancreas and Nearby Organs

Pancreatic cancer may be seen in adults over the age of 55. It affects people of all genders and backgrounds. Risk may be higher in individuals with long-term health conditions or a family history of pancreatic cancer.

Younger adults can also be affected, particularly when genetic factors are present.

How does pancreatic cancer usually develop?

In a healthy pancreas, cells grow and divide in a controlled manner. In pancreatic cancer, damaged cells begin to multiply uncontrollably and form a tumor.

Over time, the tumor may interfere with digestion, block bile flow, or spread to nearby or distant organs.

The main biological types include:

• Pancreatic adenocarcinoma — the most common type
• Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) — rarer and often slower growing

Several factors may increase the risk of pancreatic cancer, though many people develop the disease without a clear cause. These may include:

• Increasing age
• Smoking or tobacco use
• Obesity
• Long-standing diabetes
• Chronic pancreatitis
• Family history of pancreatic cancer
• Certain inherited genetic conditions

Which part of the body is involved?

Esophageal cancer affects the lining of the esophagus and may develop in different sections—upper, middle, or lower—depending on the cancer type.

Types of Esophageal Cancer

The two most common types are:

Adenocarcinoma

• Usually develops in the lower part of the esophagus
• Often associated with long-standing acid reflux (GERD) and Barrett’s esophagus
• More commonly observed in individuals with obesity or chronic digestive conditions

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

• Develops from flat cells lining the esophagus
• Commonly affects the upper or middle portion
• Frequently associated with tobacco and alcohol use

A diagram showing the locations of Adenocarcinoma (lower esophagus) vs. Squamous Cell Carcinoma (upper/middle esophagus).

Esophageal cancer can occur in both men and women, though it is more commonly diagnosed in:

• Adults over 50 years of age
• Men
• Individuals with long-term digestive or lifestyle-related risk factors

These factors may increase risk, but individual health and timely follow-up play an important role.

The disease typically begins when normal esophageal cells change their structure and growth behavior. These altered cells may multiply over time, forming abnormal tissue that can progress if not identified early.

Factors that may increase the risk of developing esophageal cancer include:

• Tobacco use (smoking or chewing)
• Excessive alcohol consumption
• Chronic acid reflux or untreated GERD
• Barrett’s esophagus
• Overweight or obesity
• Poor nutritional intake, particularly low consumption of fruits and vegetables
• Increasing age
• Certain medical conditions affecting esophageal movement
• Family history in some cases

Having one or more risk factors does not mean a person will develop cancer, but awareness supports timely monitoring.

Lung cancer begins in the lungs, which are located in the chest inside the ribcage. The lungs are made up of soft, spongy tissue and are divided into sections called lobes.

• The right lung has three lobes
• The left lung has two lobes to make space for the heart

Anatomy of Lung

Air travels through the bronchi and bronchioles into tiny air sacs called alveoli, where oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide is removed.

Lung cancer may be seen in:

• Adults, especially older individuals
• Both men and women
• People with a history of smoking
• Non-smokers exposed to air pollution or second-hand smoke

In India, lung cancer is among the leading cancers in terms of incidence and mortality, and many cases are diagnosed at later stages.

Lung cancer usually develops when normal lung cells undergo changes in their genetic material (DNA). These altered cells may begin to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumour. Over time, cancer cells may invade nearby tissues or spread to distant organs.

Several factors may increase the risk of lung cancer, including:

• Tobacco smoking
• Exposure to second-hand smoke
• Air pollution
• Radon gas exposure
• Occupational exposure to substances such as asbestos or diesel fumes
• Family history or genetic susceptibility
• Previous lung diseases

Having a risk factor does not mean a person will develop lung cancer.

The prostate gland is located below the urinary bladder and in front of the rectum. It surrounds part of the urethra, the tube that carries urine out of the body.

Functions of the Prostate:

• Produces fluid that contributes to semen
• Supports normal urinary and reproductive function

Most prostate cancers start in the glandular cells involved in fluid production.
Anatomy of the male pelvic region highlighting the prostate gland

• More common in men over 50, with risk increasing with age
• Can affect men of all backgrounds
• Higher risk if there is a family history of prostate, breast, or related cancers
• Less commonly, younger men can develop prostate cancer due to inherited genetic factors

Prostate cancer develops when some prostate cells acquire damage that disrupts normal growth.

• These cells multiply uncontrollably and live longer than normal cells, forming a growth in the prostate
• Often slow-growing and confined to the gland
• Can become aggressive and spread to lymph nodes or bones over time

Most common type:

• Prostate adenocarcinoma — arises from fluid-producing glandular cells
• Rare subtypes exist but are uncommon

No single cause, but certain factors may increase risk:

• Increasing age
• Family history of prostate or breast cancer
• Inherited genetic mutations (e.g., BRCA-related changes)
• African or African-Caribbean ancestry
• Diets high in red meat, high-fat dairy, or unhealthy fats
• Excess body weight

Note: Having these risk factors does not mean a person will definitely develop prostate cancer.

Oral cancer can affect multiple areas within the mouth, including:

• Lips — impacting facial movement and speech
• Tongue — affecting taste, speech clarity, and swallowing
• Gums — leading to oral discomfort and loosening of teeth
• Inner cheeks (buccal mucosa) — causing pain and restricted mouth opening
• Floor of the mouth — interfering with tongue movement and swallowing
• Roof of the mouth (palate) — affecting chewing and speech resonance
• Salivary glands — reducing saliva production and causing dry mouth

As oral cancer progresses, it may lead to:

• Difficulty chewing and swallowing food
• Changes in speech or voice clarity
• Reduced tongue movement and loss of taste
• Persistent mouth pain, numbness, or burning sensation
• Excessive drooling or dry mouth
• Poor oral hygiene and increased risk of infections

These functional challenges can significantly affect nutrition intake, communication, and overall quality of life.

• Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) — The most common type, originating from the lining cells of the mouth, tongue, lips, and gums.
• Verrucous Carcinoma — A low-grade, slow-growing variant of squamous cell carcinoma affecting the oral cavity.
• Minor Salivary Gland Carcinoma — Includes cancers like mucoepidermoid carcinoma and adenoid cystic carcinoma arising from small salivary glands in the mouth.
• Oral Malignant Melanoma — A rare cancer developing from pigment-producing cells in the oral mucosa.
• Oral Lymphoma — Cancer originating from lymphoid tissue within the oral cavity.
• Oral Sarcoma — Rare tumors arising from connective tissues such as muscle, bone, or blood vessels in the mouth.

Several factors increase the likelihood of developing oral cancer:

• Tobacco use (smoking, chewing tobacco, gutkha, paan)
• Alcohol consumption, especially when combined with tobacco
• Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection, particularly HPV-16
• Prolonged sun exposure (especially linked to lip cancer)
• Poor oral hygiene
• A diet low in fruits and vegetables
• Age above 40 years
• Male gender
• Weakened immune system
• Previous history of oral precancerous lesions or oral cancer

In countries like India, the use of smokeless tobacco and areca nut is a major contributor to oral cancer risk.

Hepatocellular carcinoma originates in the liver, a large organ situated in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen. The liver is responsible for processing nutrients, producing bile, regulating blood clotting, and removing toxins from the body.

Hepatocellular carcinoma may be seen in:

• Adults, more commonly over the age of 40
• Men more often than women
• Individuals with long-standing liver conditions
• Populations with higher rates of viral hepatitis

Liver cancer can affect anyone, and certain lifestyle factors may influence the risk.

HCC typically develops over time as healthy liver cells undergo gradual changes due to chronic inflammation or repeated injury. These altered cells may begin to grow uncontrollably, forming a tumor. In many cases, this process occurs in a liver already affected by scarring (cirrhosis) or long-term liver disease.

Several factors may increase the likelihood of developing hepatocellular carcinoma, including:

• Chronic hepatitis B or hepatitis C infection
• Liver cirrhosis from any cause
• Long-term alcohol consumption
• Fatty liver disease linked to obesity or diabetes
• Exposure to certain toxins (such as aflatoxins)
• Genetic or inherited liver disorders

Having one or more risk factors does not mean a person will develop cancer, but awareness is important.

Blood cancers and lymphomas may begin in:

• Bone marrow, where blood cells are produced
• Bloodstream, which carries cells throughout the body
• Lymphatic system, including lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and lymph vessels

Anatomy of the Lymphatic System

Because these systems are interconnected, abnormal cells may circulate or appear in multiple areas.

Blood cancers and lymphomas may be seen in:

• Both children and adults, depending on the subtype
• Slightly higher rates in older adults for many forms
• All genders, with some subtypes being more common in one gender
• People with certain immune-related or genetic conditions

These cancers typically develop when blood or immune cells undergo genetic changes that alter their growth and division. Instead of maturing normally, these cells may multiply uncontrollably and fail to function properly. Over time, they can crowd out healthy cells or interfere with normal immune responses.

Leukaemia: Types and Staging

Types of Leukaemia
Leukaemia is commonly grouped based on how quickly it develops and the type of blood cell involved.

• Acute Leukaemia — Develops rapidly and involves immature blood cells. Symptoms often appear suddenly and require prompt medical attention.
• Chronic Leukaemia — Develops more slowly and involves more mature blood cells. Some people may have few or no symptoms initially.

Leukaemia is also classified by the blood cell affected:

• Lymphocytic Leukaemia — affects lymphocytes
• Myeloid Leukaemia — affects myeloid cells

Common examples include Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia (ALL), Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML), Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia (CLL), and Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia (CML).

Staging of Leukaemia
Leukaemia is not staged like solid tumors. Instead, doctors assess:

• Blood and bone marrow test results
• The number of abnormal cells
• Effects on organs such as the lymph nodes, liver, or spleen

This overall assessment helps guide treatment and monitoring rather than assigning numbered stages.

Lymphoma: Types and Staging

Types of Lymphoma
There are two main types:

• Hodgkin Lymphoma — Characterised by the presence of a specific abnormal cell type.
• Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma — A larger group with many subtypes that vary in how they grow and respond to treatment.

Lymphomas may also be described as:

• Slow-growing (indolent)
• Fast-growing (aggressive)

These terms describe growth patterns, not severity.

Staging of Lymphoma
Lymphoma is staged based on how far it has spread within the body:

• Stage I — Involvement of a single lymph node region or site
• Stage II — Involvement of two or more regions on the same side of the diaphragm
• Stage III — Involvement on both sides of the diaphragm
• Stage IV — Spread to organs outside the lymphatic system

Staging helps doctors plan appropriate treatment.

Several factors may increase the risk of blood cancers and lymphomas, including:

• Certain genetic conditions or family history
• Weakened immune system, including autoimmune diseases
• Previous cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy or radiation
• Exposure to specific chemicals or radiation
• Certain viral infections, such as Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) or HIV

Having one or more risk factors does not mean a person will develop cancer.

Stomach cancer begins in the stomach, a muscular, hollow organ located in the upper abdomen between the esophagus and the small intestine. The inner lining of the stomach, which produces digestive acids and enzymes, is most commonly involved.

Stomach cancer may be seen in:

• Adults over the age of 50
• Men more commonly than women
• People with long-standing stomach conditions
• Populations in certain geographic regions, particularly parts of Asia and Eastern Europe

Being in a higher-risk group does not mean one will develop stomach cancer, but awareness supports timely medical care.

Stomach cancer usually develops when healthy cells in the stomach lining undergo changes that cause them to grow uncontrollably. These altered cells may form a tumor over time. The process is often slow and may occur over several years, sometimes beginning with chronic inflammation or changes in the stomach lining.

• Chronic infection with Helicobacter pylori
• Diets high in smoked, salted, or processed foods
• Low intake of fruits and vegetables
• Smoking and excessive alcohol consumption
• Family history of stomach cancer
• Certain inherited genetic conditions
• Long-term stomach inflammation or ulcers